Sunga Dynasty – A Glimpse into Post-Mauryan India

      The Sunga dynasty emerged as the successor to the Mauryan Empire in ancient India, marking a significant transition in the political landscape of the Indian subcontinent. The Mauryan Empire, led by the illustrious Emperor Ashoka, had reached its zenith in the 3rd century BCE, but by the mid-2nd century BCE, it began to decline, paving the way for the rise of the Sunga dynasty.

The Sunga dynasty took control of northern and central India around 185 BCE after the fall of the Mauryan Empire. Its founder, Pushyamitra Sunga, is said to have been the commander-in-chief of the last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha. The emergence of the Sunga dynasty occurred in a backdrop of political instability, as the Mauryan Empire disintegrated, providing an opportunity for new powers to assert themselves.

The Sunga dynasty ruled during a crucial period in Indian history, known as the post-Mauryan or Shunga period, lasting until approximately 73 BCE. This era witnessed a complex interplay of political, social, and cultural developments. The Sunga rulers faced the challenge of consolidating power and stabilizing the political landscape after the Mauryan decline.

One of the key significances of the Sunga dynasty lies in its patronage of Brahmanical traditions, particularly Hinduism. Pushyamitra Sunga, the first ruler, is believed to have been a staunch supporter of Brahmanical orthodoxy. This marked a shift away from the Buddhist orientation of the Mauryan Empire, as the Sunga rulers sought to reestablish the dominance of traditional Vedic practices. Despite this emphasis on Brahmanism, the Sunga period also witnessed a continuation of Buddhist influence, with some rulers supporting Buddhism alongside Hinduism.

The Sunga dynasty’s contributions to Indian art and architecture are also noteworthy. Although not as monumental as the Mauryan legacy, the Sunga period saw the development of early forms of Indian art, with the creation of sculptures and reliefs that depicted both Hindu and Buddhist themes. These artistic endeavors laid the foundation for the rich artistic traditions that would flourish in later centuries.

Rise and Establishment of the Sunga Dynasty

Pushyamitra Sunga and the Mauryan Downfall:

Pushyamitra Sunga, the founder of the Sunga dynasty, played a crucial role in the downfall of the Mauryan Empire. He is believed to have been the military commander under the last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha. According to historical accounts, Pushyamitra assassinated Brihadratha and seized power, marking the end of the Mauryan dynasty. The exact reasons for this act are not explicitly documented, but it is often attributed to a power struggle or discontent within the military.

Pushyamitra Sunga is often portrayed as a staunch Brahmanical ruler, and his ascent marked a shift in the religious orientation of the Indian subcontinent. While the Mauryan Empire, under Ashoka, had embraced Buddhism, Pushyamitra Sunga and subsequent rulers favored Brahmanical traditions, which influenced the cultural and religious landscape of the Sunga period.

Reasons for the Decline of the Mauryan Empire and the Rise of the Sunga Dynasty:

The decline of the Mauryan Empire can be attributed to a combination of internal and external factors. Ashoka’s successors faced challenges in maintaining the vast territorial extent of the empire, and regional governors began to assert greater autonomy. The vast administrative machinery, coupled with the economic strain of maintaining a large standing army, might have contributed to internal instability.

Externally, the Mauryan Empire faced incursions from foreign invaders and external pressures. The northwest regions were particularly vulnerable to attacks from Central Asian and Greek forces. The weakening central authority and military challenges left the Mauryan Empire susceptible to fragmentation.

The emergence of the Sunga dynasty can be seen as a response to the power vacuum created by the Mauryan decline. Pushyamitra Sunga, with his military prowess and support from Brahmanical circles, seized the opportunity to establish a new ruling dynasty.

Extent of the Sunga Empire and Administrative Structure:

The Sunga Empire covered substantial parts of northern and central India. Its core territories included the Gangetic plains, extending from present-day Uttar Pradesh to the northern regions of the Indian subcontinent. The exact territorial boundaries may have fluctuated during different reigns.

The administrative structure of the Sunga Empire followed a pattern similar to the Mauryan model, with provinces or regions administered by governors. The empire was likely organized into districts (janapadas), and local administration was carried out by officials appointed by the central authority. The administrative machinery also played a role in revenue collection, which was crucial for sustaining the empire.

Despite the Brahmanical leanings of the rulers, there was a degree of religious tolerance, and Buddhism continued to coexist alongside Hinduism. The Sunga period laid the groundwork for the subsequent development of Indian polity and culture, contributing to the diverse historical tapestry of ancient India.

Wars of the Shungas

War and conflict characterised the Shunga period. They are known to have warred with the Kalingas, Satavahanas, the Indo-Greeks, and possibly the Panchalas and Mathuras.

The Shunga Empire’s wars with the Indo-Greek Kingdom figure greatly in the history of this period. From around 180 BCE the Greco-Bactrian ruler Demetrius conquered the Kabul Valley and is theorised to have advanced into the trans-Indus to confront the Shungas.The Indo-Greek Menander I is credited with either joining or leading a campaign to Pataliputra with other Indian rulers; however, very little is known about the exact nature and success of the campaign. The net result of these wars remains uncertain.

Literary evidenceedit

Several works, such as the Mahabharata and the Yuga Purana describe the conflict between the Shungas and the Indo-Greeks.

Military expeditions of the Shungasedit

Scriptures such as the Ashokavadana claim that Pushyamitra toppled Emperor Brihadratha and killed many Buddhist monks. Then it describes how Pushyamitra sent an army to Pataliputra and as far as Sakala (Sialkot), in the Punjab, to persecute Buddhist monks.

War with the Yavanas (Greeks)edit

The Indo-Greeks, called Yavanas in Indian sources, either led by Demetrius I or Menander I, then invaded India, possibly receiving the help of Buddhists. Menander in particular is described as a convert to Buddhism in the Milindapanha.

The Hindu text of the Yuga Purana, which describes Indian historical events in the form of a prophecy, relates the attack of the Indo-Greeks on the Shunga capital Pataliputra, a magnificent fortified city with 570 towers and 64 gates according to Megasthenes, and describes the impending war for city:

Then, after having approached Saketa together with the Panchalas and the Mathuras, the Yavanas, valiant in battle, will reach Kusumadhvaja “the town of the flower-standard”, Pataliputra. Then, once Puspapura (another name of Pataliputra) has been reached and its celebrated mud-walls cast down, all the realm will be in disorder

— Yuga Purana

However, the Yuga Purana indicates that the Yavanas (Indo-Greeks) did not remain for long in Pataliputra, as they were faced with a civil war in Bactria.

Western sources also suggest that this new offensive of the Greeks into India led them as far as the capital Pataliputra:

Those who came after Alexander went to the Ganges and Pataliputra

— Strabo 

Battle on the Sindhu riveredit

An account of a direct battle between the Greeks and the Shunga is also found in the Mālavikāgnimitram, a play by Kālidāsa which describes a battle between a squadron of Greek cavalrymen and Vasumitra, the grandson of Pushyamitra, accompanied by a hundred soldiers on the “Sindhu river“, in which the Indians defeated a squadron of Greeks and Pushyamitra successfully completed the Ashvamedha Yagna. This river may be the Indus river in the northwest, but such expansion by the Shungas is unlikely, and it is more probable that the river mentioned in the text is the Sindh River or the Kali Sindh River in the Ganges Basin.

Epigraphic and archaeological evidenceedit

Dhanadeva-Ayodhya inscriptionedit

Ultimately, Shunga rule seems to have extended to the area of Ayodhya. Shunga inscriptions are known as far as Ayodhya in northern central India, in particular, the Dhanadeva-Ayodhya inscription refers to a local king Dhanadeva, who claimed to be the sixth descendant of Pushyamitra. The inscription also records that Pushyamitra performed two Ashvamedhas (victory sacrifices) in Ayodhya.

Yavanarajya inscriptionedit

The Greeks seem to have maintained control of Mathura. The Yavanarajya inscription, also called the “Maghera inscription”, discovered in Mathura, suggests that the Indo-Greeks were in control of Mathura during the 1st century BCE. The inscription is important in that it mentions the date of its dedication as “The last day of year 116 of Yavana hegemony (Yavanarajya)”. It is considered that this inscription is attesting the control of the Indo-Greeks in the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE in Mathura, a fact that is also confirmed by numismatic and literary evidence. Moreover, it does not seem that the Shungas ever ruled in Mathura or Surasena since no Shunga coins or inscriptions have been found there.

The Anushasana Parva of the Mahabharata affirms that the city of Mathura was under the joint control of the Yavanas and the Kambojas.

Later however, it seems the city of Mathura was retaken from them, if not by the Shungas themselves, then probably by other indigenous rulers such as the Datta dynasty or the Mitra dynasty, or more probably by the Indo-Scythian Northern Satraps under Rajuvula. In the region of Mathura, the Arjunayanas and Yaudheyas mention military victories on their coins (“Victory of the Arjunayanas”, “Victory of the Yaudheyas”), and during the 1st century BCE, the Trigartas, Audumbaras and finally the Kunindas also started to mint their own coins, thus affirming independence from the Indo-Greeks, although the style of their coins was often derived from that of the Indo-Greeks.

Heliodorus pillaredit

Very little can be said with great certainty. However, what does appear clear is that the two realms appeared to have established normalised diplomatic relations in the succeeding reigns of their respective rulers. The Indo-Greeks and the Shungas seem to have reconciled and exchanged diplomatic missions around 110 BCE, as indicated by the Heliodorus pillar, which records the dispatch of a Greek ambassador named Heliodorus, from the court of the Indo-Greek king Antialcidas, to the court of the Shunga emperor Bhagabhadra at the site of Vidisha in central India.

Religion and Culture in the Sunga Period:

Shift towards Brahmanism and Revival of Vedic Rituals:

The Sunga dynasty marked a notable shift in the religious landscape of ancient India. Pushyamitra Sunga and subsequent rulers were patrons of Brahmanism and actively supported the revival of Vedic rituals. This marked a departure from the Buddhist orientation of the preceding Mauryan Empire under Ashoka. The Sunga rulers sought to reestablish the dominance of traditional Vedic practices, promoting the authority of Brahmanical priests and the performance of Vedic rituals.

The revival of Vedic rituals during the Sunga period had a significant impact on society, influencing both religious and social practices. The support for Brahmanism contributed to the development of a Brahmanical orthodoxy that continued to shape Indian culture for centuries to come.

Evolving Relationship between Buddhism and the Ruling Dynasty:

While the Sunga rulers were proponents of Brahmanism, they did not entirely abandon Buddhism. The relationship between Buddhism and the ruling dynasty during the Sunga period was complex and nuanced. Some rulers were more tolerant towards Buddhism, and there is evidence that both religions coexisted during this time.

The Sunga dynasty did not engage in the large-scale persecution of Buddhists, as witnessed during the later Gupta period. However, the state’s patronage shifted towards Brahmanical traditions, leading to a decline in the royal support for Buddhism. Despite this, Buddhism continued to thrive at the regional and local levels, with monastic communities and Buddhist teachings persisting in various parts of the subcontinent.

Contributions in Art, Literature, and Architecture:

The Sunga period made significant contributions to Indian art, literature, and architecture. Although not as monumental as the Mauryan legacy, the artistic endeavors of the Sunga dynasty laid the foundation for the subsequent development of these cultural aspects.

Sanchi Stupa and Bharhut Stupa:

One of the most enduring legacies of the Sunga period is the construction of stupas, with the most notable examples being the Sanchi Stupa and the Bharhut Stupa. These stupas served as important religious monuments and were adorned with intricately carved reliefs depicting scenes from the life of Buddha, Jataka tales, and various other motifs.

The Sanchi Stupa, in particular, stands as a remarkable achievement of Sunga architecture. It was initially commissioned by the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka and later expanded and renovated by the Sunga rulers. The stupa is a UNESCO World Heritage site and remains an iconic symbol of Indian Buddhist art and architecture.

The Bharhut Stupa, located in Madhya Pradesh, is another significant structure from the Sunga period. It features a wealth of sculptural panels portraying diverse aspects of life and culture during that time.

These stupas, with their elaborate carvings and architectural finesse, exemplify the synthesis of religious and artistic expression during the Sunga period, contributing to the rich cultural tapestry of ancient India.

Trade and Economy during the Sunga Rule:

Trade and commerce were integral components of the Sunga dynasty’s economic landscape. The empire’s strategic location, well-connected trade routes, and effective administration contributed to economic prosperity and stability during this period, leaving a lasting impact on the cultural and historical development of ancient India.

Importance of Trade and Commerce:

Trade and commerce played a crucial role in the economic dynamics of the Sunga dynasty. The Sunga period witnessed the continuation and expansion of trade networks that had been established during the earlier Mauryan Empire. The economic activities of the time were diverse, involving both internal and external trade, contributing significantly to the prosperity and stability of the Sunga Empire.

Flourishing Trade Routes and Role of the Sunga Empire:

The Sunga Empire was strategically located in the fertile Gangetic plains, providing an ideal geographical setting for economic activities. The Ganges River served as a vital waterway, facilitating inland transportation and trade. The empire was well-connected to important trade routes that crisscrossed the Indian subcontinent and extended to regions beyond.

The Grand Trunk Road, a major ancient trade route, passed through the heart of the Sunga Empire, connecting key cities and facilitating the movement of goods. This road played a pivotal role in promoting both internal and external trade, fostering economic exchanges between different regions.

Externally, the Sunga Empire engaged in trade with neighboring regions, including Central Asia and the Hellenistic kingdoms. The contacts established through trade contributed to cultural exchanges and the flow of goods and ideas.

Economic Prosperity and Stability:

The Sunga period is generally associated with economic prosperity and stability. The agricultural sector thrived in the fertile Gangetic plains, contributing to food surplus and supporting a growing population. The stability of the empire, combined with effective administration and infrastructure development, created an environment conducive to economic growth.

The administration of revenue collection, which was crucial for the sustenance of the empire, was likely well-organized. The surplus generated from agricultural activities and trade would have played a role in financing state expenditures, including the maintenance of the military and infrastructure projects.The economic prosperity of the Sunga period is also reflected in the patronage of art, literature, and architecture. The construction of stupas, like the Sanchi Stupa, and other cultural endeavors, suggests a degree of financial affluence and the availability of resources to support such projects.

 Trade and commerce were integral components of the Sunga dynasty’s economic landscape. The empire’s strategic location, well-connected trade routes, and effective administration contributed to economic prosperity and stability during this period, leaving a lasting impact on the cultural and historical development of ancient India.